LuvGreenTea2019 on Nostr: Save Women's Sports has amassed a great deal of research. ...
Save Women's Sports has amassed a great deal of research.
https://www.savewomenssport.com/the-facts
https://www.savewomenssport.com/is-this-fair
Skeletal structure (different shaped pelvis, longer limbs, etc.) doesn’t change.
Testosterone and Bone Structure
Bone structure and bone length changes in both sexes as children progress through puberty, with estradiol and testosterone having important roles in bone growth [37,38]. However, the effects of testosterone are stronger than those of estradiol, as exemplified by the 10% greater bone mass density and the larger and longer bones in post-pubertal males. These sex differences in bone structure provide males with increased fulcrum power, improving jumping, throwing, and other movements requiring explosive actions. The stronger bones also tolerate more trauma and thus males are more resistant to injury. Larger bones in males provide a greater articular surface that, in turn, allows placement of more skeletal muscle. For example, broader shoulders in males allows the build-up of more muscle, thereby increasing upper body strength [39].
Sex differences in bone shape driven by early life testosterone exposure can affect athletic performance. The most obvious structural difference between males and females is pelvis width, with estradiol driving the wider shape required for childbirth [40]. A narrower pelvis has a direct impact on the Q angle at the knee joint. The Q angle forms between the quadricep muscles and the patellar tendon and is responsible for generating force during a knee extension. The smaller Q angle of males generates a greater force upon extension [41]. This has implications for sports that involve standing from a squatting position, kicking a ball, or a pedaling motion. There is also a sex difference in the angle formed between the humerus and ulna at the elbow, with the angle smaller in a male [42]. The smaller angle for males again allows a greater force upon extension, benefiting sports involving throwing and hitting with bats and rackets.
2.4. Testosterone and the Cardiorespiratory System
Early life testosterone exposure also drives sex differences in the cardiorespiratory system. Females have, on average, a 10–12% smaller lung volume than males, accounting for height, age, and within sex variation [43]. This smaller lung volume is established within the first few years of life in females due to a lower rate of alveolar multiplication [44,45] and shorter diaphragm that reduces ribcage dimensions [46]. These anatomical differences therefore drive a lower oxygen uptake capacity in females [43,44]. Females also have a heart size that is about 85% that of males, relative to body size [47]. This anatomical difference decreases the volume of blood that can be pumped to the body with every contraction of the heart. The larger heart size of males translates to a larger left ventricle and therefore, stroke volume. On average, the stroke volume of females is just one-third that of males. As such, a female’s heart rate must increase proportionally more to achieve a cardiac output necessary to supply active skeletal muscle with enough oxygen.
Active skeletal muscles require the efficient delivery of oxygen, and aerobic capacity is essential for athletic performance. Males have much higher arterial oxygen levels, primarily due to testosterone-regulated synthesis of hemoglobin [48]. The increased hemoglobin levels coupled with increased lung capacity provides males with a distinct respiratory and oxygen carrying advantage over females. It is consistently reported that hemoglobin concentrations are 12% higher in males than females, and this sex difference in hemoglobin emerges during puberty driven by testosterone [48]. Administration studies show that testosterone increases hemoglobin levels in a dose-dependent fashion [49], and medical castration to lower circulating testosterone levels in prostate cancer patients decreases hemoglobin levels [50].
These effects of testosterone on oxygen carrying capacity, together with the anatomical advantages of male anatomy, help explain the superiority of the male cardiovascular system as it relates to athletic performance. The VO2 max of an elite male is in the order of 70–85 mL/kg/min, while that of females is 60–75 mL/kg/min; a difference of 15–30% [51].
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9331831/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362291456_Transwoman_Elite_Athletes_Their_Extra_Percentage_Relative_to_Female_Physiology
https://www.savewomenssport.com/the-facts
https://www.savewomenssport.com/is-this-fair
Skeletal structure (different shaped pelvis, longer limbs, etc.) doesn’t change.
Testosterone and Bone Structure
Bone structure and bone length changes in both sexes as children progress through puberty, with estradiol and testosterone having important roles in bone growth [37,38]. However, the effects of testosterone are stronger than those of estradiol, as exemplified by the 10% greater bone mass density and the larger and longer bones in post-pubertal males. These sex differences in bone structure provide males with increased fulcrum power, improving jumping, throwing, and other movements requiring explosive actions. The stronger bones also tolerate more trauma and thus males are more resistant to injury. Larger bones in males provide a greater articular surface that, in turn, allows placement of more skeletal muscle. For example, broader shoulders in males allows the build-up of more muscle, thereby increasing upper body strength [39].
Sex differences in bone shape driven by early life testosterone exposure can affect athletic performance. The most obvious structural difference between males and females is pelvis width, with estradiol driving the wider shape required for childbirth [40]. A narrower pelvis has a direct impact on the Q angle at the knee joint. The Q angle forms between the quadricep muscles and the patellar tendon and is responsible for generating force during a knee extension. The smaller Q angle of males generates a greater force upon extension [41]. This has implications for sports that involve standing from a squatting position, kicking a ball, or a pedaling motion. There is also a sex difference in the angle formed between the humerus and ulna at the elbow, with the angle smaller in a male [42]. The smaller angle for males again allows a greater force upon extension, benefiting sports involving throwing and hitting with bats and rackets.
2.4. Testosterone and the Cardiorespiratory System
Early life testosterone exposure also drives sex differences in the cardiorespiratory system. Females have, on average, a 10–12% smaller lung volume than males, accounting for height, age, and within sex variation [43]. This smaller lung volume is established within the first few years of life in females due to a lower rate of alveolar multiplication [44,45] and shorter diaphragm that reduces ribcage dimensions [46]. These anatomical differences therefore drive a lower oxygen uptake capacity in females [43,44]. Females also have a heart size that is about 85% that of males, relative to body size [47]. This anatomical difference decreases the volume of blood that can be pumped to the body with every contraction of the heart. The larger heart size of males translates to a larger left ventricle and therefore, stroke volume. On average, the stroke volume of females is just one-third that of males. As such, a female’s heart rate must increase proportionally more to achieve a cardiac output necessary to supply active skeletal muscle with enough oxygen.
Active skeletal muscles require the efficient delivery of oxygen, and aerobic capacity is essential for athletic performance. Males have much higher arterial oxygen levels, primarily due to testosterone-regulated synthesis of hemoglobin [48]. The increased hemoglobin levels coupled with increased lung capacity provides males with a distinct respiratory and oxygen carrying advantage over females. It is consistently reported that hemoglobin concentrations are 12% higher in males than females, and this sex difference in hemoglobin emerges during puberty driven by testosterone [48]. Administration studies show that testosterone increases hemoglobin levels in a dose-dependent fashion [49], and medical castration to lower circulating testosterone levels in prostate cancer patients decreases hemoglobin levels [50].
These effects of testosterone on oxygen carrying capacity, together with the anatomical advantages of male anatomy, help explain the superiority of the male cardiovascular system as it relates to athletic performance. The VO2 max of an elite male is in the order of 70–85 mL/kg/min, while that of females is 60–75 mL/kg/min; a difference of 15–30% [51].
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9331831/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362291456_Transwoman_Elite_Athletes_Their_Extra_Percentage_Relative_to_Female_Physiology